Moral psychology Essay

In the first lecture I have tried to explain you the concept of Business Ethics, its importance in the organization, and arguments against its implementation. Along with that we did a small activity so as to make everything clear. In this lecture I shall talk about morality and moral standards. Points to be covered in this lecture: Meaning and characteristics of morality Meaning and origin of moral standards MORALITY What do you actually mean by morality? Morality can be explained in all these ways: Morality can be defined as the standards that an individual or a group has about what is right and wrong, or good and evil. Moral quality or character; rightness or wrongness, as of an action; the character of being in accord with the principles or standards of right conduct. Not imposed from outside, but innate and can even be unconscious. We have a fundamental urge to connect. Ultimately, it’s our moral qualities that force us to live in harmony with the unconscious; doing so is the highest form of morality. Morality is individual; the morality of a group decreases as its size increases. Morality is an informal public system applying to all rational persons, governing behavior that affects others, and has the lessening of evil or harm as its goal. Morality is a complex of concepts and philosophical beliefs by which an individual determines whether his or her actions are right or wrong. Often, these concepts and beliefs are generalized and codified in a culture or group, and thus serve to regulate the behavior of its members. Conformity to such codification is called morality, and the group may depend on widespread conformity to such codes for its continued existence. A â€Å"moral† may refer to a particular principle, usually as informal and general summary of a moral principle, as applied in a given human situation. Characteristics Of Morality To say that morality is a public system incorporates the essential feature that everyone who is subject to moral judgment knows what kinds of actions it prohibits, requires, discourages, encourages, and allows. It also guarantees that it is never irrational to act morally. It would take considerably more space than is appropriate here to show that defining morality as a public system that applies to all rational persons also results in morality being a universal guide to behavior that all rational persons would put forward for governing the behavior of all moral agents. I should make clear that the claim that all rational persons would put forward this system only follows if limitations are put on the beliefs that rational persons can use and if they are attempting to reach agreement with similarly limited rational persons. To say that morality is an informal system means that it has no authoritative judges and decision procedures that provide unique answers to all moral questions. When it is important that disagreements be settled, societies use political and legal systems to supplement morality. These formal systems have the means to provide unique answers, but they do not provide a moral answer to the question. Example: An important example of such a moral question is whether, and if so under what conditions, to allow abortion. There is continuing disagreement about this moral question, even though the legal and political system in the United States has provided fairly clear guidelines about the conditions under which abortion is allowed. Despite this important and controversial issue, morality, like all informal public systems, presupposes overwhelming agreement on most moral questions. No one thinks it is morally justified to cheat, deceive, injure, or kill simply in order to gain sufficient money to take a fantastic vacation. In the vast majority of moral situations, given agreement on the facts, no one disagrees, but for this very reason, these situations are never discussed. Thus, the overwhelming agreement on most moral matters is often overlooked. The claim that morality governs behavior that affects others is somewhat controversial. Some have claimed that morality governs behavior that affects only the agent himself/herself. Examples of behavior that supposedly affects only oneself, often include taking recreational drugs, masturbation, and developing one’s talents. The final characteristic of morality — that it has the lessening of evil or harm as its goal — is also somewhat controversial. The Utilitarians talk about producing the greatest good as the goal of morality. However they include the lessening of harm as essential to producing the greatest good and almost all of their examples involve the avoiding or preventing of harm. The paradigm cases of moral precepts involve rules which prohibit causing harm directly or indirectly, such as rules prohibiting killing, causing pain, deceiving, and breaking promises. Even those precepts that require or encourage positive action, such as helping the needy, are almost always related to preventing or relieving harms. Moral Standards Moral standards include the norms we have about the kinds of actions we believe are morally right and wrong as well as the values we place on the kinds of objects we believe are morally good and morally bad. Moral norms can usually be expressed as general rules, ie. â€Å"Always tell the truth. † Moral values can usually be expressed as statements describing objects or features of objects, ie. â€Å" Honesty is good. † Origin Of Moral Standards During childhood moral standards are absorbed from family, friends and various societal institutions. Later in life experiences, learning and intellectual development help a person in forming these standards. Moral Standards Vs. Non-Moral Standards Moral standards deal with matters, which can seriously injure or seriously benefit human beings while it is not the case with non-moral standards. Examples of non-moral standards include the standards of etiquette by which we judge manners as good or bad, and the standards we call â€Å"law† by which we judge legal right and wrong. Moral standards are not formed or changed by the decision of particular authoritative bodies and the validity of these standards lies on the adequacy of the reasons that are taken to support and justify them. If a person has the moral obligation to do something, then the person is supposed to do that even if this conflicts with other non-moral values or self-interest. Moral standards does not evaluate standards on the basis of the interests of a particular individual or group, but one that goes beyond personal interests to a universal stand point in which everyone’s interests are impartially counted as equal. Moral standards are associated with special emotions and a special vocabulary. If a person tells a lie so as to fulfill a purpose and then afterwards he starts feeling guilty or ashamed of his behavior. Points to ponder: Till now we have discussed what is ethics, business ethics, morality and moral standards, but students you should always remember that what is right and moral for you may be wrong and immoral for me or to any other person sitting in the class. In a way we can say that Ethics is a very subjective matter. Ok, tell me one thing that how are you now going to react when you will see a person lying in a pool of blood on the road. Are you going to help him or will avoid him because of the fear of Delhi police? Hope now you will start using your conscience and will do what you feel is right and there will be no hiccups before taking any action. Overview: Morality can be defined as the standards that an individual or a group has about what is right and wrong, or good and evil. Moral standards include the norms we have about the kinds of actions we believe are morally right and wrong as well as the values we place on the kinds of objects we believe are morally good and morally bad. Activity Define morality. Discuss some characteristics of morality. http://www. slideshare. net/birubiru/morality-and-moral-standards Social norms are group-held beliefs about how members should behave in a given context Sociologists describe norms as informal understandings that govern society’s behaviors, while psychologists have adopted a more general definition, recognizing smaller group units, like a team or an office, may also endorse norms separate or in addition to cultural or societal expectations.

Boeing Changes the Nature of Its Business with Global Collaboration Essay

Boeing, the $55 billion Chicago-based aerospace company, has been a major player in the global economy for almost a century. But now the company is undertaking a far-reaching transformation as it uses cutting-edge materials and electronics and high-level technology for the design and assembly process of its new passenger plane –the Boeing 787. The new plane, nicknamed the â€Å"Dreamliner,† is Boeing’s bid for market leadership in competition with Airbus. The new midsize passenger jet will have an outer shell and about half of its parts made of carbon-fiber-reinforced plastic, which will make it lighter and give it better fuel economy. In January 2006, the company had 291 firm orders and 88 commitments from 27 airlines for the new 787, which will seat from 250 to 330 passengers in varying configurations. The list price is about $150 million per plane. The previous state of the art in aviation manufacturing was to have global partners work from a common blueprint to produce parts-actually, whole sections of the airplane-that were then physically shipped to a Boeing assembly plant near Seattle to see if they fit together. Prior to the 787, wood mock-ups of planes would be constructed to see if parts built by partners around the world would really fit together. When the process failed, the cost in time and production was extreme. Boeing’s shift goes beyond making planes faster and cheaper. The new business model takes Boeing from manufacturing to a high-end technology systems integrator. In 2004, Boeing’s IT systems people were consolidated into the Boeing Technology Group. Now parts are designed from concept to production concurrently by partners (including companies in Japan, Russia, and Italy) and â€Å"assembled† in a computer model maintained by Boeing outside its corporate firewall. Boeing’s role is integrator and interface to the airlines, while the partners take responsibility for the major pieces, including their design. Boeing still takes the hit if the plane fail and deliveries are late, but the actual cost of development and manufacturing is spread across its network of collaborators. At the same time, building such global relationships may help the company sell its planes overseas. The biggest savings are the time saved through the online collaboration process (from 33 to 50 percent), creating a huge competitive advantages. Collaboration is a necessity for Boeing for several reason. Airplanes are huge and enormously complex. Politically, sales of a â€Å"global product† are enhanced when people in other countries are building parts of the airplane. Companies in these countries may then buy from Boeing. Basic collaboration is done through information-flow tools such as Microsoft Office and SharePoint. Boeing and partners are using Dassault Systemes 3D and Product Lifecycle Management solutions. Other IT tools used are a product suite from Exostar LLC, with which Boeing can share two-dimensional drawings, conduct forward and reverse auctions, and respond to RFPs, and an application called Catia. The plane is designed at Global Collaboration Environment, a special online site maintained by Boeing. There levels of collaboration are facilitated between teams and companies. In the first level-design collaboration- all parties involved log in and make their changes electronically in the blueprints, and the team works together. Quality is improves because the computer finds the mistakes. The next level involves suppliers working with their supply chains. The third level is real-time collaboration involves a considerable amount of product lifecycle management across multiple countries enabled by technology that differentiates Boeing’s new model from the previous kinds of global relationships. Boeing also uses the new partnership to solicit ideas of how to improve designs, integration, and so on. This results in cost-cutting. Boeing maintains 10 multimedia rooms at its Everett, Washington, complex for the use of collaboration teams. These are open 365 days a year, 24 hours a day. A visualization application developed by Boeing allows the teams to do real-time design reviews of complex geometry without any Lag time as the models load. Meetings are conducted in English, with sidebar conversations, as needed, in a team member’s native language. Collaborative design also speeds the design process, helping Boeing to avoid expensive penalties from its customers if the plane is not delivered on time, and it gives the company more flexibility in simultaneously designing multiple versions of the 787 that are part of its wide-ranging appeal in the marketplace. Finished designs are stored in another Dassult product, Enovia, which is also maintained by Boeing. This has become an enormous data-management task. The issue of security has also been a concern; however, security technology has developed to the point that the security of the information is assured. Collaboration across cultures and time zones can raise a host of issues about the way people work together. The adjustment of management practice to the networked, team-oriented approach is important to consider when redesigning human resources practices to meet virtual resource needs and when developing a custom-tailored collaboration platform.

Barack Obama - Nobel Prize for Peace Lecture and Speech

Barack Obama Nobel Prize for Peace Acceptance Speech and Lecture delivered 10 December 2009, Oslo City Hall, Oslo, Norway Your Majesties, Your Royal Highnesses, distinguished members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee, citizens of America, and citizens of the world: I receive this honor with deep gratitude and great humility. Its an award that speaks to our highest aspirations that for all the cruelty and hardship of our world, we are not mere prisoners of fate. Our actions matter, and can bend history in the direction of justice. And yet, I would be remiss if I did not acknowledge the considerable controversy that your generous decision has generated. In part, this is because I am at the beginning, and not the end, of my labors on the world stage. Compared to some of the giants of history whove received this prize Schweitzer and King, Marshall and Mandela my accomplishments are slight. And then there are the men and women around the world whove been jailed and beaten in the pursuit of justice; those who toil in humanitarian organizations to relieve suffering; the unrecognized millions whose quiet acts of courage and compassion inspire even the most hardened cynics. I cannot argue with those who find these men and women some known, some obscure to all but those they help to be far more deserving of this honor than I. But perhaps the most profound issue surrounding my receipt of this prize is the fact that I am the Commander-in-Chief of the military of a nation in the midst of two wars. One of these wars is winding down. The other is a conflict that America did not seek, one in which we are joined by 42 other countries including Norway in an effort to defend ourselves and all nations from further attacks. Still, we are at war. And I am responsible1 for the deployment of thousands of young Americans to battle in a distant land. Some will kill; and some will be killed. And so I come here with an acute sense of the costs of armed conflict filled with difficult questions about the relationship between war and peace, and our effort to replace one with the other. Now these questions are not new. War, in one form or another, appeared with the first man. At the dawn of history, its morality was not questioned; it was simply a fact, like drought or disease the manner in which tribes and then civilizations sought power and settled their differences. And over time, as codes of law sought to control violence within groups, so did philosophers and clerics and statesmen seek to regulate the destructive power of war. The concept of a just war emerged, suggesting that war is justified only when certain conditions were met: if it is waged as a last resort or in self-defense; if the force used is proportional; and if, whenever possible, civilians are spared from violence. Of course, we know that for most of history, this concept of just war was rarely observed. The capacity of human beings to think up new ways to kill one another proved inexhaustible, as did our capacity to exempt from mercy those who look different or pray to a different God. Wars between armies gave way to wars between nations total wars in which the distinction between combatant and civilian became blurred. In the span of 30 years, such carnage would twice engulf this continent. And while its hard to conceive of a cause more just than the defeat of the Third Reich and the Axis powers, World War II was a conflict in which the total number of civilians who died exceeded the number of soldiers who perished. In the wake of such destruction, and with the advent of the nuclear age, it became clear to victor and vanquished alike that the world needed institutions to prevent another world war. And so a quarter century after the United States Senate rejected the League of Nations an idea for which Woodrow Wilson received this prize America led the world in constructing an architecture to keep the peace: a Marshall Plan, and a United Nations; mechanisms to govern the waging of war, treaties to protect human rights, prevent genocide, restrict the most dangerous weapons. In many ways, these efforts succeeded. Yes, terrible wars have been fought, and atrocities committed. But there has been no Third World War. The Cold War ended with jubilant crowds dismantling a wall. Commerce has stitched much of the world together. Billions have been lifted from poverty. The ideals of liberty and self-determination, equality, and the rule of law have haltingly advanced. We are the heirs of the fortitude and foresight of generations past, and it is a legacy for which my own country is rightfully proud. And yet, a decade into a new century, this old architecture is buckling under the weight of new threats. The world may no longer shudder at the prospect of war between two nuclear superpowers, but proliferation may increase the risk of catastrophe. Terrorism has long been a tactic, but modern technology allows a few small men with outsized rage to murder innocents on a horrific scale. Moreover, wars between nations have increasingly given way to wars within nations. The resurgence of ethnic or sectarian conflicts; the growth of secessionist movements, insurgencies, and failed states all these things have increasingly trapped civilians in unending chaos. In todays wars, many more civilians are killed than soldiers; the seeds of future conflict are sown, economies are wrecked, civil societies torn asunder, refugees amassed, children scarred. I do not bring with me today a definitive solution to the problems of war. What I do know is that meeting these challenges will require the same vision, hard work, and persistence of those men and women who acted so boldly decades ago. And it will require us to think in new ways about the notions of just war and the imperatives of a just peace. We must begin by acknowledging a hard truth: We will not eradicate violent conflict in our lifetimes. There will be times when nations, acting individually or in concert, will find the use of force not only necessary but morally justified. I make this statement mindful of what Martin Luther King Jr. said in this same ceremony years ago: Violence never brings permanent peace. It solves no social problem. It merely creates new and more complicated ones. As someone who stands here as a direct consequence of Dr. Kings life work, I am living testimony to the moral force of non-violence. I know theres nothing weak, nothing passive, nothing naà ¯ve in the creed and lives of Gandhi and King. But as a head of state sworn to protect and defend my nation, I cannot be guided by their examples alone. I face the world as it is and cannot stand idle in the face of threats to the American people. For make no mistake: Evil does exist in the world. A non-violent movement could not have halted Hitlers armies. Negotiations cannot convince al Qaedas leaders to lay down their arms. To say that force may sometimes be necessary is not a call to cynicism. It is a recognition of history, the imperfections of man, and the limits of reason. I raise this point, I begin with this point because in many countries there is a deep ambivalence about military action today no matter what the cause. And at times, this is joined by a reflexive suspicion of America, the worlds sole military superpower. Yet, the world must remember that it was not simply international institutions not just treaties and declarations that brought stability to a post-World War II world. Whatever mistakes we have made, the plain fact is this: The United States of America has helped underwrite global security for more than six decades with the blood of our citizens and the strength of our arms. The service and sacrifice of our men and women in uniform has promoted peace and prosperity from Germany to Korea, and enabled democracy to take hold in places like the Balkans. We have borne this burden not because we seek to impose our will. We have done so out of enlightened self-interest because we seek a better future for our children and grandchildren, and we believe that their lives will be better if others children and grandchildren can live in freedom and prosperity. So yes, the instruments of war do have a role to play in preserving the peace. And yet this truth must coexist with another: that no matter how justified, war promises human tragedy. The soldiers courage and sacrifice is full of glory expressing devotion to country, to cause, to comrades in arms. But war itself is never glorious; and we must never trumpet it as such. So part of our challenge is reconciling these two seemingly irreconcilable truths: that war is sometimes necessary; and war at some level is an expression of human folly. Concretely, we must direct our effort to the task that President Kennedy called for long ago. Let us focus, he said, on a more practical, more attainable peace, based not on a sudden revolution in human nature but on a gradual evolution in human institutions. A gradual evolution of human institutions. What might this evolution look like? What might these practical steps be? To begin with, I believe that all nations, strong and weak alike, must adhere to standards that govern the use of force. I, like any head of state, reserve the right to act unilaterally if necessary to defend my nation. Nevertheless, I am convinced that adhering to standards, international standards, strengthens those who do and isolates and weakens those who dont. The world rallied around America after the 9/11 attacks and continues to support our efforts in Afghanistan, because of the horror of those senseless attacks and the recognized principle of self-defense. Likewise, the world recognized the need to confront Saddam Hussein when he invaded Kuwait a consensus that sent a clear message to all about the cost of aggression. Furthermore, America in fact, no nation can insist that others follow the rules of the road if we refuse to follow them ourselves. For when we dont, our actions appear arbitrary and undercut the legitimacy of future interventions, no matter how justified. And this becomes particularly important when the purpose of military action extends beyond self-defense or the defense of one nation against an aggressor. More and more, we all confront difficult questions about how to prevent the slaughter of civilians by their own government, or to stop a civil war whose violence and suffering can engulf an entire region. I believe that force can be justified on humanitarian grounds, as it was in the Balkans, or in other places that have been scarred by war. Inaction tears at our conscience and can lead to more costly intervention later. Thats why all responsible nations must embrace the role that militaries with a clear mandate can play to keep the peace. Americas commitment to global security will never waver. But in a world in which threats are more diffuse and missions more complex America cannot act alone. America alone cannot secure the peace. This is true in Afghanistan. This is true in failed states like Somalia, where terrorism and piracy is joined by famine and human suffering. And sadly, it will continue to be true in unstable regions for years to come. The leaders and soldiers of NATO countries, and other friends and allies, demonstrate this truth through the capacity and courage theyve shown in Afghanistan. But in many countries, there is a disconnect between the efforts of those who serve and the ambivalence of the broader public. I understand why war is not popular, but I also know this: The belief that peace is desirable is rarely enough to achieve it. Peace requires responsibility. Peace entails sacrifice. Thats why NATO continues to be indispensable. Thats why we must strengthen U.N. and regional peacekeeping, and not leave the task to a few countries. Thats why we honor those who return home from peacekeeping and training abroad to Oslo and Rome, to Ottawa and Sydney, to Dhaka and Kigali. We honor them not as makers of war, but as of wagers but as wagers of peace. Let me make one final point about the use of force. Even as we make difficult decisions about going to war, we must also think clearly about how we fight it. The Nobel Committee recognized this truth in awarding its first prize for peace to Henry Dunant the founder of the Red Cross, and a driving force behind the Geneva Conventions. Where force is necessary, we have a moral and strategic interest in binding ourselves to certain rules of conduct. And even as we confront a vicious adversary that abides by no rules, I believe the United States of America must remain a standard bearer in the conduct of war. That is what makes us different from those whom we fight. That is a source of our strength. That is why I prohibited torture. That is why I ordered the prison at Guantanamo Bay closed. And that is why I have reaffirmed Americas commitment to abide by the Geneva Conventions. We lose ourselves when we compromise the very ideals that we fight to defend. And we honor we honor those ideals by upholding them not when its easy, but when it is hard. Ive spoken at some length to the question that must weigh on our minds and our hearts as we choose to wage war. But let me now turn to our effort to avoid such tragic choices, and speak of three ways that we can build a just and lasting peace. First, in dealing with those nations that break rules and laws, I believe that we must develop alternatives to violence that are tough enough to actually change behavior. For if we want a lasting peace, then the words of the international community must mean something. Those regimes that break the rules must be held accountable. Sanctions must exact a real price. Intransigence must be met with increased pressure and such pressure exists only when the world stands together as one. One urgent example is the effort to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons, and to seek a world without them. In the middle of the last century, nations agreed to be bound by a treaty whose bargain is clear: All will have access to peaceful nuclear power; those without nuclear weapons will forsake them; and those with nuclear weapons will work towards disarmament. I am committed to upholding this treaty. It is a centerpiece of my foreign policy. And Im working with President Medvedev to reduce America and Russias nuclear stockpiles. But it is also incumbent upon all of us to insist that nations like Iran and North Korea do not game the system. Those who claim to respect international law cannot avert their eyes when those laws are flouted. Those who care for their own security cannot ignore the danger of an arms race in the Middle East or East Asia. Those who seek peace cannot stand idly by as nations arm themselves for nuclear war. The same principle applies to those who violate international laws by brutalizing their own people. When there is genocide in Darfur, systematic rape in Congo, repression in Burma there must be consequences. Yes, there will be engagement. Yes, there will be diplomacy. But there must be consequences when those things fail. And the closer we stand together, the less likely we will be faced with the choice between armed intervention and complicity in oppression. This brings me to a second point: the nature of the peace that we seek. For peace is not merely the absence of visible conflict. Only a just peace based on the inherent rights and dignity of every individual can truly be lasting. It was this insight that drove drafters of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights after the Second World War. In the wake of devastation, they recognized that if human rights are not protected, peace is a hollow promise. And yet, too often these words are ignored. For some countries, the failure to uphold human rights is excused by the false suggestion that these are somehow Western principles, foreign to local cultures or stages of a nations development. And within America, theres long been a tension between those who describe themselves as realists or idealists a tension that suggests a stark choice between the narrow pursuit of interests or an endless campaign to impose our values around the world. I reject these choices. I believe that peace is unstable where citizens are denied the right to speak freely or worship as they please; choose their own leaders or assemble without fear. Pent-up grievances fester, and the suppression of tribal and religious identity can lead to violence. We also know that the opposite is true. Only when Europe became free did it finally find peace. America has never fought a war against a democracy, and our closest friends are governments that protect the rights of their citizens. No matter how callously defined, neither Americas interests nor the worlds are served by the denial of human aspirations. So even as we respect the unique culture and traditions of different countries, America will always be a voice for those aspirations that are universal. We will bear witness to the quiet dignity of reformers like Aung Sang Suu Kyi, to the bravery of Zimbabweans who cast their ballots in the face of beatings, to the hundreds of thousands who have marched silently through the streets of Iran. It is telling that the leaders of these governments fear the aspirations of their own people more than the power of any other nation. And it is the responsibility of all free people and free nations to make clear that these movements these movements of hope and history they have us on their side. Let me also say this: The promotion of human rights cannot be about exhortation alone. At times, it must be coupled with painstaking diplomacy. I know that engagement with repressive regimes lacks the satisfying purity of indignation. But I also know that sanctions without outreach condemnation without discussion can carry forward only a crippling status quo. No repressive regime can move down a new path unless it has the choice of an open door. In light of the Cultural Revolutions horrors, Nixons meeting with Mao appeared inexcusable and yet it surely helped set China on a path where millions of its citizens have been lifted from poverty and connected to open societies. Pope John Pauls engagement with Poland created space not just for the Catholic Church, but for labor leaders like Lech Walesa. Ronald Reagans efforts on arms control and embrace of perestroika not only improved relations with the Soviet Union, but empowered dissidents throughout Eastern Europe. Theres no simple formula here. But we must try as best we can to balance isolation and engagement, pressure and incentives, so that human rights and dignity are advanced over time. Third, a just peace includes not only civil and political rights it must encompass economic security and opportunity. For true true peace is not just freedom from fear, but freedom from want. It is undoubtedly true that development rarely takes root without security; it is also true that security does not exist where human beings do not have access to enough food, or clean water, or the medicine and shelter they need to survive. It does not exist where children cant aspire to a decent education or a job that supports a family. The absence of hope can rot a society from within. And thats why helping farmers feed their own people, or nations educate their children and care for the sick, is not mere charity. Its also why the world must come together to confront climate change. There is little scientific dispute that if we do nothing, we will face more drought, more famine, more mass displacement all of which will fuel more conflict for decades. For this reason, it is not merely scientists and environmental activists who call for swift and forceful action. Its military leaders in my own country and others who understand our common security hangs in the balance. Agreements among nations. Strong institutions. Support for human rights. Investments in development. All these are vital ingredients in bringing about the evolution that President Kennedy spoke about. And yet, I do not believe that we will have the will, the determination, the staying power, to complete this work without something more; and thats the continued expansion of our moral imagination an insistence that theres something irreducible that we all share. As the world grows smaller, you might think it would be easier for human beings to recognize how similar we are to understand that were all basically seeking the same things, that we all hope for the chance to live out our lives with some measure of happiness and fulfillment for ourselves and our families. And yet, somehow, given the dizzying pace of globalization, the cultural leveling of modernity, it perhaps comes as no surprise that people fear the loss of what they cherish in their particular identities their their race, their tribe, and perhaps most powerfully their religion. In some places, this fear has led to conflict. At times, it even feels like were moving backwards. We see it in the Middle East, as the conflict between Arabs and Jews seems to harden. We see it in nations that are torn asunder by tribal lines. And most dangerously, we see it in the way that religion is used to justify the murder of innocents by those who have distorted and defiled the great religion of Islam, and who attacked my country from Afghanistan. These extremists are not the first to kill in the name of God. The cruelties of the Crusades are amply recorded. But they remind us that no Holy War can ever be a just war. For if you truly believe that you are carrying out divine will, then there is no need for restraint no need to spare the pregnant mother, or the medic, or the Red Cross worker, or even a person of one owns [sic] faith. Such a warped view of religion is not just incompatible with the concept of peace, but I believe its incompatible with the very purpose of faith: For the one rule that lies at the heart of every major religion is that we do unto others as we would have them do unto us. Adhering to this law of love has always been the core struggle of human nature. For we are fallible. We make mistakes, and fall victim to the temptations of pride, and power, and sometimes evil. Even those of us with the best of intentions will at time[s] fail to right the wrongs before us. But we do not have to think that human nature is perfect for us to still believe that the human condition can be perfected. We do not have to live in an idealized world to still reach for those ideals that will make it a better place. The non-violence practiced by men like Gandhi and King may not have been practical or possible in every circumstance, but the love that they preached their fundamental faith in human progress that must always be the North Star that guides us on our journey. For if we lose that faith if we dismiss it as silly or naà ¯ve; if we divorce it from the decisions that we make on issues of war and peace then we lose whats best about humanity. We lose our sense of possibility. We lose our moral compass. Like generations have before us, we must reject that future. As Dr. King said at this occasion so many years ago, I refuse to accept despair as the final response to the ambiguities of history. I refuse to accept the idea that the isness of mans present condition makes him morally incapable of reaching up for the eternal oughtness that forever confronts him. Let us reach for the world that ought to be that spark of the divine that still st[i]rs within each of our souls. Somewhere today, in the here and now, in the world as it is, a soldier sees hes outgunned, but stands firm to keep the peace. Somewhere today, in this world, a young protestor awaits the brutality of her government, but has the courage to march on. Somewhere today, a mother facing punishing poverty still takes the time to teach her child, scrapes together what few coins she has to send that child to school because she believes that a cruel world still has a place for that childs dreams. Let us live by their example. We can acknowledge that oppression will always be with us, and still strive for justice. We can admit the intractability of depravation, and still strive for dignity. Clear-eyed, we can understand that there will be war, and still strive for peace. We can do that for that is the story of human progress; thats the hope of all the world; and at this moment of challenge, that must be our work here on Earth. Thank you very much. Source: WhiteHouse.gov

National and International Ethics - Patent Rights Assignment

National and International Ethics - Patent Rights - Assignment Example 2. The Bayer should have actually not made any follow up whether its patent rights are being infringed. In this case, it was a matter of medical urgency and since the company was unable to meet the demand, it is ethical that they allow other players to come in. in this case, the Bayer should not have followed its own credo more than it seemingly did 3. It was ethical for the Bayer to threaten litigation against those thwarting its patent right. In this case, the company would have been coerced to allow other companies to manufacture similar drugs. In this case, it would have been unethical for Bayer to prevent other from manufacturing. 4. It was unethical for United States and Canada to change laws that contravenes the intellectual property rights of the Bayer Company. The best approach they would have used is to get into negotiations with the company so that they agree on the modality to solve the stalemate. As such, the two countries would have invoked the international ethical standards against the Bayer. 5. International Code of Ethics would have been the best channel to resolve this stalemate. In this case, the Bayer would have been requested to donate some of its patent right to other companies to manufacture the

Entry of The American Clothing Company into China Essay

Entry of The American Clothing Company into China - Essay Example The company may also consider operating under a different name once it decides to enter China. While doing business, it is very important that the business bears a name that customers can associate with. For this reason, the company may consider adopting a name that reflects with the people of China. Operating under the same name in China would give competitors a higher edge in that other organizations may take pride in being home grown and purport understand the market and the needs of the customers better. The company must thus realize that it is a neck stiff competition that requires strategic planning at all stages.In making this decision, the company must also consider the right entry mode. It may consider going into a merger with a relatively smaller organization, or acquiring another company that is already established but perhaps not doing very well in the market. Further, the company would need to do some internal re-organization in order to find out the necessary personnel who may need to relocate to the other country for managerial purposes. As the new company, it would be in appropriate to rely on the labour force available in China to start up operations. In as a much as this labour would be instrumental in running the business, it would be important that individuals from the US work at the initial stages of establishing the company as this would help to instill the company’s core values, objectives and mission into the new market.

My Philosophy of Education (Early Childhood Education) Essay - 1

My Philosophy of Education (Early Childhood Education) - Essay Example A sense of security encourages risk-taking by children, both emotionally and intellectually. The teacher should strive to nurture each child and the group in a manner which is consistent with developmentally appropriate practice. To this end, strict lessons should be minimized and supplemented liberally by child-directed activities and play-oriented roles. Stress can be minimized and children can be explorers of knowledge. With respect to the students, they should learn to teach themselves. They should be allowed to define problems and the means by which such problems are solved. They should be allowed to test new ideas and observe the consequences of different actions. Finally, a strict curriculum should be de-emphasized and students allowed to help choose what and how they will learn. Within limits, curriculum and assessment should be collaborative. I believe this will make students more engaged. The first value that we should teach children, and one not stated explicitly enough in my view, is that every child is capable of learning. Research on meta-cognition, in effect learning how to learn, suggests that students who keep a record of their learning tend to perform well. This can be reinforced in the early childhood context by having students keep a picture diary or journal. They can draw what they have learned and reflect on how much they have learned every week or every month. Another important value is the value of diversity; more particularly, the sincere recognition that other people, whatever their gender, race, or personality, have something important to offer the larger group. This is important because students must learn to succeed in other social settings in the future. This can be taught using play-oriented activities in which a successful resolution depends on the contribution of each member of the group rather than the acts of, say, a single individual. Children should also be taught the value of reflection; more specifically, they should be taught that patience and learning can co-exist. This can be taught by requiring a thinking time before accepting answers or comments. The value of persistence is also of great value. Children should be taught that learning is a cumulative process. This can be taught by having periodic reviews where students demonstrate what they have learned in a child-initiated environment. The teacher participates rather than directs. Students can ask and answer the questions. Finally, students should be taught the value that learning is useful. Too often students are left to wonder why they are doing what they are doing. What is the purpose The teacher should design activities which allow the children to apply what they have learned. The activity may be clever or purely humorous, but the link between concept or theory and use or application should be instilled in the children. My Philosophy of Education As a teacher, I feel that it is my primary obligation to create the safest and most learning-conducive environment possible. Although I do value the mastery of specific learning outcomes, this is not my ultimate goal; rather, I hope to create learning values that the student can apply to develop emotionally, socially and intellectually. I also hope to convey a relevant curriculum for the learner, so that students begin to see the usefulness of

Redesign project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Redesign project - Essay Example Mixing such pertinent equipment as nails and reverting materials among others may compromise the safety of the installation process. For a safer installation process, only an experienced professional and not any other person who may obtain the manual must do the installation. Warning/ Caution Never, stand or walk on the glass panel. Such actions may result in the instantaneous breakage of the panel thereby jeopardizing the equipment besides potential risk it presents to the installer. Protect the sheathing from any source of wetness at all costs. Failure of such during the installation process may cause leaks therefore do not work during stormy weather. Do not cut or attempt to modify the mounting systems. Ensure the use of the equipment provided by the company and replacing damaged equipment. The modification of such important equipment may compromise the safety of the work environment. Points to consider when selecting the installation position The point of location is one of the m ost critical contributors to the effectiveness of the solar system. The installer must therefore consider several factors that contribute to both the effectiveness and the safety of the installation process as listed below: Do not locate the systems near salt-water locations. The installer must maintain a 0.3 meters radius from such locations. Salt water corrodes the surface thus reducing the use of the systems. Inspection of the roof support system is vital and the installer must ensure that the roof is strong enough to endure the weight of the panel. In inspecting the roof support system, the installer must check to ensure that the support is durable and will therefore last as long as the panel lasts. Inspection of the roof is equally important and the installer must ensure that the roof is capable not only of supporting the panel but also expose the panel to adequate sunlight. The condition of the roof should promise the longevity of the panel any repairs to the roof must take pl ace before the installation as subsequent repairs may disrupt the use of the panel. More importantly, the roof must prove the ability to support the weight of the panel and provide ease of wiring. Please note: Install the panels at approximately twelve inches from the ridges of the roof. Additionally to ensure the effective usability of the panels, do not install the solar panels in either windy or stormy regions as such are not the best weather conditions for the use of the panels and may also pose serious risks during the installation process. PV Modules Wiring is essential during the installation process and presents potential risks to both the installer and the users of the solar panels. The installer must therefore ensure that: The wiring process is in accordance to the dictates of the National Electrical Code. In this, the government outlines the quality of wires to use and the equipment to use during wiring. Failure to comply with the provisions is a criminal offense. Note th at the solar panels produce electric current with any minimal exposure to direct sunlight at any time and thus presents potential shock risks to both the installer and anybody else. The installer must prevent any contact with naked wires during the wiring process and discourage the presence of anybody not

The role of the local police in preventing and responding to the Term Paper

The role of the local police in preventing and responding to the threat of terrorism - Term Paper Example This situation has naturally resulted in the need for the local police to play an important role in the prevention of terrorist acts as well as the apprehension of perpetrators who may belong to any terror group, whether domestic or international in origin. At the moment, there may still be a need for the local police to fully appreciate this role in homeland counter-terrorism and develop strategies and tactics that would give a concrete expression of it. It is clear that the usually more equipped and trained defense machineries of the government are already occupied with the offensive side of the war on terrorism. In line with the theory of pre-emptive warfare, a great part of the U.S. military’s might have been stationed outside of the homeland, particularly in regions of the world where the concentration of foreign terrorist organizations is heavy. The orientation of the different branches of the armed forces is towards forward deployment. Under this circumstance, the quest ion about who is going to watch the rear demands an urgent answer. It is clear that the federal law enforcement agencies, such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation and even the respective state’s national guards may not be enough because of their inadequate number and concentration. The local police forces, on the other hand, have two advantages in this regard. Although they are not concentrated, they have a bigger number of personnel that could be mobilized for counter-terrorism. Secondly, they are more dispersed with distinct smaller areas of jurisdiction, making it possible for them to monitor dubious and illegal movements more convenient and effective. It is in these contexts that the potential of the local police forces in anti-terrorism are appreciated. I. The Limitations of the Local Police Force With the lethal attacks launched in 9/11 and the possibility of more similar strikes in American soil, convincing key leaders of the local police regarding the need to take a proactive stance against terrorism is not difficult. It is a fact that after 9/11, the top officers of the New York Police Department, as well as that of the other major urban centers in the country, have acknowledged to reorient their personnel and to include counter-terrorism as part of their roles and responsibilities. However, there is also the reality that the local police simply does not have the training and the equipment which could be utilized for the purpose of determining potential threats, investigating possible suspects, and apprehending them before the terrorist action is committed and, thereby prevent the loss of lives and the damage to properties. More importantly, the intelligence capabilities of the local police are not as sophisticated as that of the FBI and the Central Intelligence Agency. The intelligence data, as well as the dossiers built through the years on key leaders and operatives of different terrorist groups, have not been made accessible to the local police forces, as these remained under the exclusive control of the FBI, the CIA, and other defense and intelligence machinery of the federal government. In this respect, â€Å"the tremendous demand now being placed on police agencies to collect information and provide it a central clearing house in order to develop and coordinate intelligence on terrorist risks throughout the country† (Hasisi et al 2009, p. 193). It is clear that when it

Discussion 7- economics-pricing strategies Assignment

Discussion 7- economics-pricing strategies - Assignment Example Since producers have no control over the market prices, they can only control how much they produce. For production, firms in pure competitive market evaluate both the prices for selling their goods and the cost of production. If the analysis leads to greater profit maximization margin, the firm increases its production. Firms in a competitive market maximize profits or minimize losses by evaluating marginal revenues against marginal costs (Reynolds, 2011). Since there are many producers, each makes up a small portion of the total market. No particular producer can influence market prices. The demand curve for the various producers in pure competitive markets is completely elastic (horizontal). Producers in pure competitive markets are price takers. Such producers have the power to sell their products as much as they can produce. If competitors change their prices in pure competitive markets, consumers are willing to switch their demands to the most competitively priced products. In such a case, cross-price elasticity increases since consumers have other available options at better offers. If one producer raises the price, demand goes to

Criminal Justice Essay Example for Free

Criminal Justice Essay In today’s society crime is increasing every day and the types of crime are changing. It seems more and more that crimes of identity theft and organized crime are on the rise. According to the CJi Interactive Media crime is defined as â€Å" conduct in violation of the criminal laws of the state, the federal government, or a local jurisdiction, for which there is no legally acceptable justification or excuse. † That means that â€Å" crime â€Å" depends on where you are. The same behavior may or may not be a crime depending on the state of the actor, time of day, the year, the location of the act, or even the reasons behind the behavior. The government structure applies to the criminal justice system when that a crime only becomes an issue when violating social norms, sanctions, or rights. Law can be defined as a set of regulations determined by a group of people who decide what is right and what is wrong. When these regulations are broken, it creates a crime. Society sees criminal justice as an officer making an arrest or patrolling the streets. Society does not realize that the criminal justice system has a government type structure, has goals, and is made up of three components. These components include the Police, Courts, and the Correction system. Each one of these components has its own function and purpose. The police enforce the law, arrest offenders, decrease and prevent crimes, maintain public order, ensure safety of the public and to protect their rights. The courts conduct fair and impartial trials, decide criminal cases, ensure due process, determine guilt or innocence through jury of peers, uphold the law, and to protect the rights of anyone facing trial by the system. The corrections carry out sentencing imposed by the courts, provide safe and humane custody of offenders, rehabilitate, reform, reinstate offenders back into the community. There are several different choice theories in regards to crime. One theory is the rational cause theory. This theory was developed by Cesare Becarria and is considered the classical school of thought and labels criminals as deviants. It explains how an offender will commit a crime for his or her own benefit or personal gain. The individual knows the act is criminal but the reward outweighs the consequence. Another theory is Sociological Positivism, this theory studies the relationships between public influences and crime. This theory is fueled by a study of social structures within an offender’s environment. Biological Positivism is another theory developed by Cesare Lombroso in the late 1800s and studies the change and physical differences between criminals and non-criminals, saying that some people are born as criminals. One more theory is the Psychological Positivism which introduces that the cause of crimes is rooted in the offender’s mental health stability or in personality disorders. For example, schizophrenia, bi-polar disease, psychopathic personality, and depression to name a few. This theory the individual who may or may not know what reality is. The offender may have a chemical imbalance that does not allow them to know right from wrong and the cause of the crime may be from inside and unavoidable versus a controlled decision. Society sees these views and have studied and applied them still today, but society uses to common models to determine which acts are criminal. One model is called the consensus model. This model is based on a wide variety of people who come together and decide based on their beliefs. There is also the conflict model, it argues that businesses or people of the criminal justice system work against or compete with each other for own personal recognition or glorification to produce and ensure justice. There are many goals of the criminal justice system of today. One goal is community safety, the system is responsible for safety and our children should be able to play outside without fear and families should be able to take evening walks. All citizens pay taxes to law enforcement personnel and view safe communities as a right. Another goal is victim restoration, if the offender is responsible to pay restitution then it will be paid directly to the courts. Then the courts will forward it to the victim. The victims also have the right to speak at the sentencing and may also speak with the probation officer to provide input and request information. The criminal justice system also wants to rehabilitate offenders and reintegrate them back into the community, whether it be on probation or the sentence has been fulfilled. Community supervision can monitor all criminals while helping them to becoming productive members of society. Some people consider the criminal justice as not a system at all. According to the KY government, â€Å"the criminal justice system is an array of agencies and organizations funded and controlled by various governmental and non-governmental entities. † This means that each agency or jurisdiction has its own responsibilities, priorities, and roles to perform and fulfill. The system has other non-government agencies and services that help prevent crime and to make the communities safe. A true system would be that all agencies collaborate together effectively, work together efficiently, and coordinate plans to help reduce crime as a team. Instead, the agencies work separately for personal gain and benefit. You have agencies that trump each other for jurisdiction rights and power. In a perfect system these problems would not exist and I think crime as whole would be a fraction of what it is today.

Tree of Life in Evolution: A Discussion

Tree of Life in Evolution: A Discussion Introduction The tree of life in science describes the relationships of all life on Earth in an evolutionary context. Charles Darwin talks about envisioning evolution ; however, the books sole illustration is of a branched diagram that is very tree-like. The evolutionary relationships of the tree of life were refined using genetic data by the great American microbiologist Carl Woese, the discoverer of the domain Archaea and a pioneer in genetic methods in evolutionary biology. Homology and homoplasy are two aspects of evolution. Homology is the concept where two similar structures have the same functions and they are derived through descent from a common ancestor. The two other external factors affecting genetic variation Vertically generated and horizontally acquired variation. Vertically generated and horizontally acquired variation Vertically generated and horizontally acquired variation are the yin and the yang of the evolutionary process. They are very important to make evolution possible. Each of them is different in evolutionary impact. Vertically generated variation is highly restricted in character, it amounts to variations on a lineages existing cellular themes. Whereas for horizontal transfer, it can call on the diversity of the entire biosphere and systems that have evolved under all manner of conditions, in a great variety of different cellular environments. Thus, horizontally derived variation is the major evolutionary source of true innovation in novel enzymatic pathways and novel membrane transporter. Vertically generated variation is not very easy to manage and use. Vertically generated variation hold the key to the evolution of biological complexity and specificity. The essence of vertically generated variation on a lineages existing themes is the principal way in which biological specificity and cellular integration evolve. A horizontal acquisition of true novelty and a predominantly vertical generation of complexity and functional differentiation, and integration are the two forces whose interchange propels the evolution of the cell. Although horizontal transfer and vertical inheritance generally have very different evolutionary consequences, there are conditions important in the present context under which their effects copy one another, like two peas in a pod. Horizontal gene transfer is any process which an organism incorporates genetic material from another organism without being the offspring of that organism. By comparing with vertical transfer, it occurs when an organism receives genetic material from its ancestor like its evolved parent. Most scientists have focused on vertical transfer, but there is a awareness that horizontal gene transfer is a highly significant phenomenon, and amongst single-celled organisms are the dominant form of genetic transfer. Artificial horizontal gene transfer is a form of genetic engineering. The Cambrian explosion The Cambrian explosion or radiation was the seemingly rapid appearance of most major groups of complex animals around 530 million years ago, as evidenced by the fossil record. This was accompanied by a major diversification of other organisms, including animals, phytoplankton, and calcimicrobes. Before about 580 million years ago, most organisms were simple, composed of individual cells occasionally organized into colonies. Over the following 70 or 80 million years the rate of evolution accelerated by an order of magnitude in terms of the extinction and origination rate of species and the diversity of life began to resemble today. The Cambrian explosion has generated extensive scientific debate. The seemingly rapid appearance of fossils in the Primordial Strata was noted as early as the mid 19th century,and Charles Darwin saw it as one of the main objections that could be made against his theory of evolution by natural selection. The long-running puzzlement about the appearance of the Cambrian fauna, seemingly abruptly and from nowhere, centers on three key points: whether there really was a mass diversification of complex organisms over a relatively short period of time during the early Cambrian; what might have caused such rapid evolution; and what it would imply about the origin and evolution of animals. Interpretation is difficult due to a limited supply of evidence, based mainly on an incomplete fossil record and chemical signatures left in Cambrian rocks. The Cambrian explosion can be viewed as two waves of metazoan expansion into empty niches. Firstly, a co-evolutionary rise in diversity as animals explored niches on the Ediacaran sea floor, followed by a second expansion in the early Cambrian as they became established in the water column. The rate of diversification seen in the Cambrian phase of the explosion is unparalleled among marine animals: it affected all metazoan clades of which Cambrian fossils have been found. Later radiations, such as those of fish in the Silurian and Devonian periods, involved fewer taxa, mainly with very similar body plans. Although the recovery from the Permian-Triassic extinction started with about as few animal species as the Cambrian explosion, the recovery produced far fewer significantly new types of animals. Whatever triggered the early Cambrian diversification opened up an exceptionally wide range of previously-unavailable ecological niches. When these were all occupied, there was little room for such wide-ranging diversifications to occur again, because there was strong competition in all niches and incumbents usually had the advantage. If there had continued to be a wide range of empty niches, clades would be able to continue diversifying and become disparate enough for us to recognise them as different phyla when niches are filled, lineages will continue to resemble one another long after they diverge, as there is limited opportunity for them to change their life-styles and forms. There is a similar one-time explosion in the evolution of land plants: after a cryptic history beginning about 450 million years ago, land plants underwent a uniquely rapid adaptive radiation during the Devonian period, about 400 million years ago. Different Historical Fossil Records Of Plant And Animal Life Plant life during the cambrian and ordovician which are the first two periods of the paleozoic era was confined to the water. Algae of immense size several hundred feet in length dominated the seas. Land plants came into existence in silurian time in the form of strange little vascular plants named the psilophytes. In the carboniferous period, imposing spore bearing trees lepidodendrids and calamites, and primitive naked seeded plants pteridosperms and cordaites reached their peak of development. The end of the paleozoic era marked the extinction of the majority of the luxuriant trees of the carboniferous coal swamps. The mesozoic era was the age of gymnosperms as evidenced by the abundance of cycads, ginkgoes and conifers. Flowering plants in the form of angiosperm rose to ascendancy toward the close of the mesozoic era and established themselves as the dominant plant group on the earth. In animal life, many of the invertebrate groups were already highly diversified and abundant in the cambrian the first period of the paleozpic era 600 million years ago. The paleozoic era called the age of invertebrates with its multitude of nautiloids, eurtpterids and trilobites. Brachiopods with hinged valves were the commonest shellfish of the paleozoic seas. In the mesozic era, the air breathing insects and vertebrates in the shape of the widely distributed reptiles held the center of the stage. Birds and mammals became prominent in the cenozoic era and the human species arrived on the scene in the closing stages of this era. Paleontologist study the fossil record based on boundaries between strata where one mix of fossils gives way to another. Transitional links are intermediate between major groups. Archeopteryx has features intermediate between primitive reptiles and birds. Eustheopteron is fish ancestral to amphibians. Seymoria is amphibian ancestral to reptiles. Therapsids are reptiles ancestral to mammals. Data are understandable assuming humans and chimpanzees share a more recent commn ancestor than do humans and ducks or yeast. Biochemical evidence is generally consistent with anatomical similarity of organisms. Tortoises, lizards, sunflower trees and other unqiue plants and animals on the islands were similar to forms on the mainland of south american as they were descended from those organisms. The differences between each island group resulted from the inhabitants of each island having been isolated from each other and changing slowly and separately in response to the conditions on their own island. Factors Affecting The Pace Of Species Evolution The factors affecting species who had evolved significantly overtime while other species did not evolve as much are due to biological factors like point mutation and viruses infection where DNA is easily attacked and attracted by viruses. There are also one other important factor that support it. Natural selection, in the form of overproduction of offspring, constancy of numbers, struggle for existence where members of a species were constantly competing with each other in an effort to survive and only a few will live long enough to breed. There were also variation among the offspring, survival of the fittest where only the strongest will survive the tough condition. Like produce like and last but not least, the formation of new species where individuals lacking favourable characteristic are less likely to survive long enough to breed. The inheritance of one small variation will not by itself produce a new species. However, the development of a number of variations in a particular di rection over many generation will gradually lead to the evolution of a new species. Conclusion The prokaryotes, the bacteria and archaea have the ability to transfer genetic information between unrelated organisms through Horizontal gene transfer (HGT). Recombination, gene loss, duplication, and gene creation are a few of the processes by which genes can be transferred within and between bacterial and archael species, causing variation that is not due to vertical transfer. There is emerging evidence of HGT occurring within the prokaryotes at the single and multicell level and the view is now emerging that the tree of life gives an incomplete picture of lifes evolution. It was a useful tool in understanding the basic processes of evolution but cannot explain the full complexity of the situation. Ultimately, i concluded that tree of life is correct and accurate to a certain extent but the informations obtained was not enough and completed. REFERENCE HTTP://shiva.msu.montana.edu/courses/mb437_537_2004_fall/docs/uprooting.pdf HTTP://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/97/15/8392.pdf Futuyma, D. J. (1998) Evolutionary Biology. 3rd edn. Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer Assiociates, Inc. Long, J. A. (1995) The Rise Of Fishes: 500 million years of evolution. Australia, Sydney: University of New South Wales Press. Solomon, E. P, Berg, L. R Martin D. W. (2002) Biology. 6th edn. Thomson Learning, Inc.

Polar Bear :: essays research papers

SPECIES- Ursus Maritimus, Polar Bear, lord of the Arctic. Lives in an area of five million square miles of snow and ice. From Siberia to Alaska and across Canada, Greenland and the Islands north of Norway, he is the master of all living things except man. It lives in the brutal cold, ice, and snow. The temperature can plunge down frequently to -40 degrees and sometimes even lower but that does not bother the polar bear because of its color-less skin and layer of insulation fat. Its range extending around the northern polar region. Necessities of Life-The polar bear eats mostly seals which he has to hunt. His trick is to wait by a breathing in the ice and when a seal comes up by that breathing hole, he grabs it so fast it knocks it unconscious and then he eats it. Other pray is a walrus calf or a musk ox stuck in snow, birds, eggs, fish, and dead whales. And sometimes in the summer it eats berries and grass. The polar bear has no water to drink so it only eats the skin and blubber, avoiding the meat. So by eating the blubber and leaving the meat the male bear is helping keep his body in balance with the surrounding environment. The bear would usually stay in a den or bury it self in the snow to avoid the suns ultra violent rays. Usually the pregnant female polar bear stays in the den.Food Chain-The polar bear finds its way on the top of its food chain. No predator on earth approaches the bear in size. The polar bear towers over everything else in his food chain. The only thing that could stop him is a human with a gun.Super Amazing Facts-The polar bear is well adapted to its special live style. The hairs of its thick coat are hollow, giving extra insulation against the bitter arctic cold. It also has an extra layer of insulating fat under its skin and the hairs on the polar bear are color less, when the sun hits them they look white. Polar bears are twice as big as lions or tigers, a typical adult male weighs half a ton and is five feet high at the shoulder. His paws are a fool wide. When he stands up straight, he can look an elephant in the eye.Explain- My species was endangered bad back in 1965 with no more than 5,000 left in the world.

ASTEROIDS :: essays research papers fc

Asteroids Sixty-Five million years ago, 70 percent of life on Earth died. The most reasonable and possible reason this happened was an asteroid. An asteroid hit the Earth very hard, and in doing this, dirt and dust from the impact stayed in the air and it blocked out sunlight, that’s why the dinosaurs died. An asteroid is a rock from outer space. Asteroids have orbited the Sun along with the planets since the solar system formed about 4.6 billion years ago, but it’s only been 200 years since we first discovered them. Meteorites are small pieces of asteroids broken off on impact with other asteroids. Most meteorites are rusty brown on the outside, have rounded edges from melting as they go through Earth’s atmosphere, and contain iron. There are 3 different types of meteorites: stony, metallic, and stony metallic.92 percents of all asteroids are stone, 6 percent are made of iron and nickel, and the rest are a combination. Some meteorites also contain gold, copper, platinum, and carbon. Scientists get a good idea of what asteroids are made of by studying them through telescopes. They can tell what an asteroid is made of by the color and brightness of the asteroid. A lot of asteroids that we have discovered are very dark and made of stone, but there are shiny ones that are made of nickel and iron. Most big asteroids are ball shaped. Smaller asteroids, which are usually broken off of a larger asteroid, come in a lot of different shapes. All asteroids have craters that form when they bump or crash into other asteroids. The older the asteroid, the more times it has been hit and the more craters it has. Asteroids can be found orbiting the Sun in a belt between Mars and Jupiter; this is called the Asteroid belt or Main belt. The asteroid belt has been said to probably contain millions of asteroids that are all different. There are more than 20,000 numbered asteroids. Some times asteroids get knocked off the asteroid belt. As asteroids revolve around the Sun in elliptical orbits, Jupiter’s gravity and getting to close to Mars or another asteroid can change an asteroids path, this could send an asteroid out of the asteroid belt and into space across the orbits of other planets. An example of asteroid orbits changing is Mar’s moons Phobos and Deimos. These were asteroids that went to close to Mars and got caught in its orbit.

Immorality in The Invisible Man by H.G. Wells :: H.G. Wells, The Invisible Man

     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In The Invisible Man, H.G. Wells both demonstrates and criticizes man's tendency to become moral or immoral with the acquirement of power. Like many books of the same era, he uses science as the instrument of retribution for the social crimes that have been committed.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Through invisibility, the Invisible Man gains triumph over science and from this, great power; he can steal, kill, and abuse anybody without fear of being caught, as he describes, "It's useful in getting away, it's useful in approaching. It's particularly useful, therefore, in killing." He also acknowledges the shortcomings of his invisibility, such as making sound and being easily imprisoned once caught, vulnerable qualities which eventually lead to his downfall.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Invisible Man breaks into many people's homes, stealing money, and leading eventually to physical abuse and killing. When faced with power, such as invisibility, man becomes immoral and is willing to do anything for personal gain and enjoyment. The Invisible Man's nemesis, Kemp, brings up the immorality by saying, "But-! I say! The common conventions of humanity." The Invisible Man just reinforces his arrogance by rebutting with, "Are all very well for common people." He believes there is nothing wrong with doing anything for his own survival since he is superior. He also brings the situation one step further with his reign of terror, which he describes as, "Not wanton killing, but a judicious slaying." He now wants to have complete control over everybody through terror and wants to start "the Epoch of the Invisible Man." This shows his complete thirst for power.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The use of science to give man superpower can likewise be found in Mary Shelley's Frankenstein.   Man should not create the invisible man or the invincible man since they are too powerful and this gives them the role of creator which, according to the society of the day, should only be a god's role.   He shows how science can accomplish great things and also how it can cause great harm.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The harm that the Invisible Man's exploitation of power causes does not go unpunished. Wells demonstrates the social need for a sense of justice, as the Invisible Man is eventually captured and beaten to death for the terror he both created and wanted to create.

Promotional Material Essay

Before we created our promotional materials such as posters, leaflets and flyers, we had to make sure that we were able to find a suitable price in which we can budget according to our finances. During our research, we were able to locate a suitable printing agency in which we could print our promotional materials in bulk, so we could hand out in the local area to help promote the business. The advantage of the agency we chose for printing our material was that they were able to print our promotional materials within 2 working days and that any deliveries that took place could be tracked on the website when u log on to it, this to make sure that the delivery is going according to plan. By selecting the amount we though would be appropriate for this campaign, we were able to locate the price in which it would cost us as an advertising agency if that amount were to be printed out. Promotional Material Leaflets We used leaflets to ensure customers the products that the cafà © will be selling in their local cafà ©. The leaflet we designed had a bright Italian background (in the form of the Italy colours), indicating immediately to the consumer that the cafà © is Italian based, which is probably the most important factor to inform the customer about. We made sure that the leaflet was specifically designed and had the relevant information such as the location of the cafà © and the products that the cafà © were going to sell. This is vital to clear as misleading customers about products that the cafà © doesn’t sell could lead to the business losing customers. We also had to include contact information so that customers could maybe phone in the cafà © to order food or to see whether the cafà © is open. We used pictures so that consumers are able to get a feel of some of the products that the cafà © has on offer. We placed this on the front (main) side of the leaflet so that it is eye catching to the consumer as soon as they see the leaflet. We made 1500 printout leaflets as they can be easily distributed around the local area and are the most common method of promotion used by a business of a similar stature. Leaflets could be posted through letter boxers to the people around the local area so it increases the chance of the consumer actually noticing and reading the leaflet This can help achieve the business objectives of achieving 30 customers daily as by using this type of promotion, in the form of leaflets, the business is virtually trying to attract more customers to shop at the cafà © and build more customer awareness of the cafà ©. If the business has more customers, they could achieve their aim of breaking even in the first year. However, a drawback of using a leaflet was that it proved to be the most costly in terms of production as we were charged at 11p per leaflet. Posters The posters we designed were again Italian based but had to limit the amount of information we could put on the poster due to lack of space. This was one of the drawbacks of using a poster but could be just as effective as using the leaflet. However, the production of the poster was the cheapest at just 4.5 per poster. This came at a surprise as we thought that the poster was to be more expensive than the rest of the promotional material. The content we had on the poster had o be very basic but had to send the message across to consumers of the products that the cafà © may sell if they came to visit. The drawback of creating a poster was that it was very time consuming as first we had to make a draft copy, then were we able to form the main copy in which was going to be used for distribution. The use of pictures made it more eyes catching for the consumer and the contents that were stated were the basic products that the cafà © were going to sell. The reason behind this decision was that we believed that consumers would be more likely to read a poster that had a limited amount of writing on the poster rather than having a ‘jammed’ pack poster full of writing and fewer pictures. By just stating the important points and more use of pictures proved to be more eye catching for us and potential consumers. This could help achieve the aims of this organisation as students and working class people could notice this poster when they shop at local newsagents or public areas when they go to work or college. Although these won’t be distributed to houses like leaflets, they will be situated at public areas such as on buses or some of the local shops nearby. This would increase customer awareness of the business on a whole or be a drawback as some people like the elderly who do not shop as often as other student are more likely to miss the poster rather than students who walk past on a day to day basis.

Junk Food Industry and Obesity

â€Å"In the U. S. obesity rates have risen from 14% in 1978 to 31% in 2000†¦according to WHO/FAO in 2001, chronic diseases resulting largely from poor diet contributed to 60% of the 56 million reported deaths worldwide† (Lang & Heasman 2004:53). Both Canadian and American citizens alike spend vast amounts of their money on food and a significant percentage of that money is spent on low-nutrition foods such as fast foods and processed foods. Being the cash cow that it is, the capitalist food system has provided the opportunity for corporations to profit numerous types of junk foods (fast & processed foods containing high sugar, salt, fat). According to Robert Albritton’s (2009:90) â€Å"Let Them Eat Junk,† he argues that â€Å"the consumption of junk foods is not the only cause of obesity, but it is doubtless a major cause†¦[and] obesity is something that we allow to happen, and while there may be many causes, [he] would argue that the primary cause is a capitalist food system that we have allowed to subject us. † This essay will further extend on that argument and examine that the growing trend of obesity is caused by the fundamental principle of the capitalist food system, which is to profit from selling junk foods without considering the health consequences associated with it. Examining why consumers eat junk food in a sociological perspective, the financial incentives associated with selling junk foods in a capitalist perspective, and the health problems/consequences from the consumption of junk foods will be explored. A solution will be provided in attempts to rectify the growing trend of obesity due to junk foods. It is vital that we also look into the health implications as a result of the consumption of junk foods. Most notably, the greatest risk being obesity. Public health is an important factor in today’s society. Billions of dollars are spent on health care all over the world. At the same time, about the same amount of money is being put into a system that deters the health of millions of citizens every year (Adams 2005). In the present, the junk food industry is becoming a focal point in controversy surrounding its impact on public health. For example, â€Å"many blame fast food businesses for public health concerns, arguing that fast-food choices and large portion sizes contribute to obesity, diabetes, heart disease, and a variety of other diet-related problems† (Adams 2005). In 2002, director Morgan Spurlock subjected himself to a diet based only in McDonald's fast food three times a day for thirty days and without working out. His objective was to prove why most of the Americans are so fat, with many cases of obesity (IMDB). He gained about 18 pounds over the course of the experiment, experienced mood swings, loss of sex drive, and nearly catastrophic liver damage. Spurlock’s body fat composition increased by 7 percent, his cholesterol went up 60 points, and his blood pressure rose from 120/80 to 150/100. Shortly after Mr. Spurlock’s revelations about his fast-food experiment, the Associated Press reported that McDonald’s was phasing out its super size menu options (Hagloch 2005). â€Å"Super Size Me† (name of the documentary) was a great example of how junk food affects the general public and is also an indication that the junk food industry, motivated by profits and shareholder interests, has ignored its responsibilities to the consuming public. It is clear that there is a huge demand for junk foods and that corporations thrive on this demand by creating more and more junk foods. As a result, there are health consequences such as obesity. Solutions to reduce obesity should be one of the main concerns in today’s society, however, to completely rid junk foods entirely need not be one of the solutions. The junk food industry plays a significant role in stimulating the North American economies. â€Å"Three-quarters of all Americans live within three miles of a McDonald’s, and two-thirds live within three miles of a KFC, Pizza Hut or Taco Bell fast food restaurant. † (Albritton 2009:98). In addition, supermarkets in North America are one of the most popular destinations for consumers to do most of their shopping. Supermarkets play a major role in the American food regime since that is where 40% of all food is purchased. Supermarkets typically sell a high proportion of highly processed, highly packaged and highly transported foods. In other words, supermarkets are largely purveyors of unsustainable petrofoods and unhealthy processed foods† (Albritton 2009:120). Given that junk foods are a signific ant contributor to the North American economies, it would be unwise to completely abolish the production and sales of junk food in order to solve the obesity epidemic. Rather, there should be more of an educational solution to fight against obesity. With the high demand for junk foods due to the fast-paced lifestyle in North America and for the availability of these foods provided by corporations that strive to gain profits, it is no surprise that junk food is one of the leading causes of obesity in North America today. As Robert Albritton (2009:90) pointed out, â€Å"†¦the primary cause is a capitalist food system that we have allowed to subject us. Although the junk food industry is significantly vital towards the stability of the North American economies, it would be unwise to rid the production and sales of junk foods entirely. Instead, the use of subsidy dollars to invest into nutritional awareness programs and the reduction in portion sizes for fast and processed foods are recommended options to prevent obesity. These steps may not on its own prevent obesity, however, these are one of many important steps in fighting against the obesity epidemic today and for future generations.

Grenz Review

TY 170 February 23, 2009 Grenz Review As time passes, different themes are presented throughout society. These themes tend to make attempts at disproving its predecessor. In Stanley J. Grenz’ book, A Primer on Postmodernism, he discusses the two most recent ideas supported by the public; modernism and postmodernism. The opposition is apparent between the eras of modernity and postmodernity. As described by Grenz, modernity focuses on the individual, using reasoning as a source of the truth. This belief causes truth to be relative.Postmodernity’s focal point is the group, rather than the individual. Truth, in the postmodern view, is created by intuition and feeling, causing it to be constructed. Grenz also discusses both the problems postmodernity pose on Christianity and the similarities between postmodernism and Christianity. Grenz’ portrait of postmodernism is accurate for what society is facing today. In order to understand the differences between modernism an d postmodernism as Grenz has defined them, first understanding of how each was created is needed.Modernity is based around meta-narratives; stories that connect everyone together. The most profound meta-narrative of modernity is the universal truth of science. One of the most important constructs of modernity is individualism, upon which all modern thinkers based their work. â€Å"Most historians suggest that the modern era was born when the Enlightenment brought new hope to war-ravaged Europe† (57). The Enlightenment had four principles; â€Å"Reason, nature, autonomy, and harmony† (68). These principles created the foundation for modern thinkers.Many modern thinkers throughout the era, regardless of their discipline, â€Å"Turned to the reasoning subject rather than divine revelation as the starting point for knowledge and reflection† (65). Through these foundations set for modernity, the modern philosophers turned to science in support for their hypotheses. à ¢â‚¬Å"Thinkers such as Descartes, Newton, and Kant provided the intellectual foundation for the modern era† (80). Rene Descartes was one of the first modern thinkers of his time, â€Å"often being referred to as the father of modern philosophy† (63). When Descartes irst set out on his journey for knowledge, he set out with doubt, in search of absolute truth that doubt could not deny (64). Like many other thinkers of that period, he â€Å"Attempted to introduce the rigor of mathematical demonstration into all fields of knowledge,† because he believed that the truths of mathematics were more concrete than knowledge based on observation (64). Descartes eventually reached the destination of his searching; the one thing that could not be doubted was one’s own existence. His new way of thinking led to a different outlook of the human person.His work defined â€Å"The human being as thinking substance and the human person as an autonomous rational subject† (64). This new definition supported Augustine’s philosophy; â€Å"Cogito ergo sum – ‘I think, therefore I am,† (64). Although Descartes’ work did not discover subjectivity, â€Å"the chief importance of his contribution lies in his emphasis on personal experience and personal knowledge, on knowledge arising from the individual’s unique point of view† (64). His role in the Enlightenment paved the path for his modern-thinking successors.Following Descartes’ work, Newton began making his own imprint on the world, emphasizing the importance of science. His work focused on trying to explain the workings of his universe that he saw as a â€Å"Grand, orderly machine,† (67). Newton’s idea of the world as a machine provided the framework for modernity. Newton believed that by viewing the world as a machine, he would be able to know its movements because it would follow a set of distinct laws (67). His design led modern thi nkers to have a mechanistic understanding of the world, as opposed to a natural view (50).Although Newton looked at the scientific explanations of the world, his intent was to explain the existence of God. Similar to Descartes, Newton used the power of reason to enhance the meaning of theology. â€Å"The modern world turned out to be Newton’s mechanistic universe populated by Descartes’ autonomous, rational substance† (67). Through Newton’s work, other philosophers had the foundation needed to make their own impressions on the world of modernity. Eventually, philosophers began questioning the Enlightenment and modernity as a whole.Through Immanuel Kant’s work, he strengthened the ties between society and modernity, which associated himself with the beginning of the Enlightenment. Kant’s most important contribution to modernity was his publication of Critique of Pure Reason (57). His critique strengthened the support of modernity and terminat ed all questioning of it. Kant sought to create a more concrete platform for metaphysics through his writing (76). He hypothesized that the mind is systematical in organizing sensations from the external world. â€Å"According to Kant, the human person is not only a creature capable of sense experience bus also a moral being† (77).Kant believed that by living morally, one lives the way he wishes all people would live. He argued that the moral aspect of human existence is essentially rational (78). This view of existence created the realm of practical reason, which encouraged other modern philosophers to concentrate on the individual self. This attentiveness came from Kant introducing the idea that the self is â€Å"not just the focus of philosophical attention but the entire subject matter of philosophy† (79). Through this notion, Kant directed his attention to the individual imposing reality.Kant’s work provided future philosophers with the concepts needed to u nderstand and eventually deconstruct modernity. Johann Gottlieb Fichte operated off of Kant’s discoveries. He accepted Kant’s work but also â€Å"Was enabled to explode it from the inside† (87). Fichte did not want to eliminate Kant’s ideas, but instead wanted â€Å"To expose the Kantian ‘fiction’ of an objective world existing in its own right beyond the self,† (87). Through his work, Kant emphasized the idea â€Å"that the self creates and determines the objects that constitute its own external world† (87). Hence, the realm that Kant claims to know through ‘pure’ reason, Fichte claims to produce through the exercise of ‘practical’ reason† (87). His work has created a freedom that â€Å"is important because it holds the potential of liberating us from a single way of understanding the world,† (88). Fichte managed to dissolve Kant’s idea of an absolute reality through â€Å"eliminat ing the noumenal realm† (88). Although he worked against Kant in many ways, Fichte managed to uphold Kant’s concept of the absolute self (87).Fichte, along with other thinkers’, beliefs led to what is now considered to be the postmodernism era by questioning the context of modernity and its constructors. Postmodernism is the mere rejection of the ideas that modernism and the Enlightenment support. The main theory that postmodernism rejects is the construct of individualism. In its denunciation of modernism, it also rejects the modern theme of meta-narratives, except for its own. The postmodern world does not believe that all knowledge is good, nor that knowledge is objective. They view life on earth as fragile and believe that the continued existence of humankind is dependent on a new attitude of cooperation rather than conquest† (7). Postmodern beliefs have a more pessimistic view on the world, as opposed to the modern idea. Postmoderns believe that the wo rld is â€Å"historical, relational, and personal† (7). The main postmodern view is that everything is different from everything (7). â€Å"Many voices have joined the postmodern chorus. But of these, three loom as both central and paradigmatic – Michel Foucault, Jacques Derrida, and Richard Rorty.They constitute a trio of postmodern prophets† (123). Michel Foucault was persistent in the rejection of the modern worldview. He argued that â€Å"reason and rational discourse are problematic.. , because they require that we squeeze the variety of reality into the artificial homogeneity that accommodates our concepts† (127). His intentions were not to present the ideas of a better society, but to understand order. This new society that Foucault presented was called â€Å"’heterotopia,’† as opposed to the modern view of â€Å"utopia† (20).Foucault focused on the connection between knowledge and power in regards to social systems, sta ting that â€Å"every interpretation of reality is an assertion of power† (6). Foucault believed that this power was â€Å"the power of violence† (59). He used genealogy to gain a better understanding of how we arrived to the beliefs supported by society (135). â€Å"According to Foucault, the practice of genealogy informs us that history is not controlled by destiny or some regulative mechanism but is the product of haphazard conflicts† (136).He reveals himself to be the model postmodern by making the assertion that â€Å"no natural order lies behind what we invent through our use of language† (137). Foucault provided a new outlet for the newly formed notion to be interpreted by future philosophers. Subsequent to Michel Foucault, Jacques Derrida reinterpreted some ideas of postmodernism. Unlike Foucault, Derrida had different views on what was in correct about modernism. He focused on defying logocentrism: â€Å"The philosophical method that looks to th e word as the carrier of meaning† (141).He began, in a sense, where Kant left of by questioning â€Å"what foundation can we offer for our use of reason† (140). Derrida was critical of Western philosophers in saying that they view writing as a demonstration of speech. He spent his lifetime of work trying to deconstruct the idea that written language represents reality. Unlike Foucault, Derrida did not try to create new ideas for postmodernism on the basis of old ideas; he rather deconstructed or disproved the foundations of modernism. Derrida wanted to demolish the modern construct that â€Å"views philosophy as pure, disinterested inquiry† (148).Along with that, he also wanted to renounce the popular idea that there is a clear link between language and the external world, (148). â€Å"Derrida’s primary goal is to divest us of logocentrism by showing the impossibility of drawing a clear line between reality and our linguistic representations† (148). Overall, Derrida’s target for deconstruction was Western philosophy as a whole. The ideas represented by the philosophy were viewed as hopeless by Derrida. The notions that Derrida brought to the table allowed thinkers to move past the modern ways and seek refuge in postmodernism.After Derrida, came a philosopher with a new way of thinking, Richard Rorty. Unlike his predecessors, Rorty expressed his belief in a clear style. Rorty is considered to be â€Å"the central figure behind the renewed interest in the American pragmatist tradition† (151). His pragmatist outlook abandoned an Enlightenment idea; â€Å"The mind is the ‘mirror of nature’† (151). In pragmatism, the view of truth is that it is a result of human convention, thus it is constructed. Similar to Derrida, Rorty believes that language does not have the capability to represent the world accurately.He views language as a device used to satisfy one’s wants and needs. Working against modernism, he also states that â€Å"we give up the idea that the goal of science is to produce models that correspond perfectly with reality† (154). Rorty believes that science is just one way to view the world, but there are many other ways to perceive it. Through the work of Foucault, Derrida, and Rorty, a new way of thinking was born which opened the world up for questioning. Postmodernism and Christianity have a working relationship. That is, Christians support and also disagree with some postmodern concepts.When postmodernism was first presented as an idea, Christians did not know how to approach it. A concern that Christians have with the postmodern view is the rejection of meta-narratives. The concept of stories uniting a group as one is the foundation for Christianity. As Grenz states, â€Å"We simply do not share the despair over the loss of universality that leads to the radical skepticism of the emerging era† (165). In addition to the rejection of meta-narr atives, postmodernism focuses on the inability to discover an all-encompassing truth. Here lies the major dilemma Christianity has with postmodernity.Christians believe that God includes the truth about everything, but postmodern thinkers do not believe that an â€Å"all-encompassing truth† is possible to reach (163). The postmodern rejection of individualism worries Christians because they â€Å"must always keep in view the biblical themes of God’s concern for each person, the responsibility of every human before God, and the individual orientation that lies within the salvation message† (168). On the other hand, Christians support the rejection of the Enlightenment idea that â€Å"the rational, scientific method is the sole measure of truth† (166).Also, the postmodern denial that all knowledge is good and objective strengthens the ties between Christianity and postmodernism (168). Christians also support the postmodern finding that no person can be sepa rate from creation. As years pass, Christians are more accepting of postmodern concepts and are more rejecting of the modern ideas they once supported. Grenz’ view of the postmodern world is acceptable for what society faces today. The postmodern views have been mirrored throughout the public. Even in school, teachers focus more on group projects and group activities rather than the individuals.Children judge each other on the amount of time they spend with others, as opposed to the ability to spend time alone. Now, it is a must for children to always be with their friends. It is also represented in the working world. Bosses would prefer group presentations rather than individual. Most people do not like to be alone or even to be singled-out. Also, as the economy is closer to being in a recession, the postmodern idea that the world is not getting better every day is strengthened. People no longer believe â€Å"that humanity will be able to solve the world’s greatest r oblems or even that their economic situation will surpass that of their parents,† (7). Every day it seems as though the world is not capable to overcome what it has started, such as wars. It seems as though the world is no longer a â€Å"happy† place at most times. The postmodern pessimistic view is presented daily. It is awkward for others when people are optimistic about their life. Overall, people seem accepting to the postmodern views. Over the years, the world has seen different phases sweep through, and each one is eventually accepted. The most current themes are modernity and postmodernity.The modern views were set forth by Rene Descartes, Isaac Newton, and Immanuel Kant. Modernism is the idea of focusing on the individual in means of scientific explanations. Also, modern thinkers believe that all knowledge is inherently good. Johann Gottlieb Fichte is partially responsible for the beginning of questioning modernity. Once Fichte opened the doors, Michel Foucault, Jacques Derrida, and Richard Rorty put an end to the modern way of thinking. What their idea created was postmodernity. The postmodern thinker steps away from the individual, focusing more on group relations.Also, postmodernism denies that all knowledge is essentially good. This new way of thinking has made Christians question how to respond. Christians agree, but also disagree with some of the postmodern views. As a whole, the world has come to terms with postmodernism by accepting it. What is going to happen when philosophers begin to question postmodernity? How will the world be viewed once people stop accepting postmodernism? Works Cited Grenz, Stanley J. A Primer on Postmodernism. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1996.